Images of Knighthood

1. General

Barron, W. R. J. English Medieval Romance. London: Longman, 1987. PR 321 BAR. ARC
(Excellent survey, covering European as well as English traditions, and with a full bibliography.)

Larry D. Benson and John Leyerle, ed. Chivalric Literature: Essays on relations between literature and life in the later Middle Ages. Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute, 1980. PN 682.C4 BEN. ARC
(Collection of articles touching on some of the main themes of the course. For overview, consult Leyerle's summarizing article at the end.)

Chickering, Howell, and Thomas H. Seiler, eds. The Study of Chivalry: Resources and Approaches. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Medieval Institute Publications, 1988. CR 4509 CHI (2 copies). ARC
(Good survey, with general discussion of the literature of the subject and articles on particular areas. A lot of useful bibliographical information.)

Gies, Frances. The Knight in History. London: Robert Hale, 1984. CR 4509 GIE
(Lightweight, wide-ranging.)

Harper-Bill, C. and R. Harvey, eds. Ideals and Practice of Medieval Knighthood, vols. 1-3. Cambridge: Brewer, 1986, 1988, 1990. CR 4513 HAR
(Anthologies of conference proceedings, mainly historical, on Continental as well as English knighthood; worth consulting the summary introductions to each vol.)

Keen, Maurice. Chivalry. New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1984. CR 4513 KEE (3 copies). ARC
(The standard textbook. Essential reading (even if you don't share his enthusiasm for the chivalric ideal). You will find an intelligent statement of opposing views in ch. 3, `The Knight’s Tale and the Crisis of Chivalric Identity’, of Lee Patterson’s Chaucer and the Subject of History (London: Routledge, 1991).

Loomis, R. S., ed. Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages. Oxford: Clarendon, 1965. PN 685 (multiple copies).
(Comprehensive collaborative anthology on all aspects of Arthurian literature.)

Lull, Ramón. The Book of the Ordre of Chyualry. Trans. William Caxton. Ed. Alfred T. P. Byles. EETS o.s. 168. London, 1926. PR 1119
(One of the most influential medieval treatises on chivalry; see Keen, above, for details).

Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience. New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1996. (Hartley Library: not yet classified).
(Approachable illustrated study, arranged by topic; see particularly Ch.9, ‘Chivalry’.)

Thomson, J. A. F. The Transformation of Medieval England, 1370-1529. London: Longman, 1983. DA 175 THO (Multiple copies). ARC
(See chs. 8 ‘War: Profit and Loss’, 13 ‘Knights, esquires, and gentry’, and 14 ‘Indentures and retaining’ for a good brief account of social-historical background of late-medieval knighthood.)

Vale, Malcolm. War and Chivalry: Warfare and Aristocratic Culture in England, France, and Burgundy at the End of the Middle Ages. Athens, Georgia, 1981. CR 4565 VAL ( 2 copies). ARC
(Relevant to themes of course; questions Huizinga's views on decline of chivalry in later Middle Ages (see section 6 below).)

2. The Development of the Knightly Class
(see also the general works under section 1 above)

Bernard S. Bachrach, ‘Caballus et caballarius in Medieval Warfare’, in Chickering and Seiler (see sec. 1 above).

Scragg, Donald, ed. The Battle of Maldon, AD 991. Oxford: Blackwell, 1991. DA 154.7 SCR (3 copies). ARC.
(Heroic poem from the late A-S period, offering good example of pre-chivalric military ideals; excellent collaborative anthology, with text and interleaved translation of poem.)

3. Religious Chivalry and the Crusades

For selected primary sources on the Crusades, see  the Internet Medieval Sourcebook,  http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1.html, under 'Crusades'.

Bernard of Clairvaux: Treatises III. Kalamazoo, Michigan, 1977. BX 890.B3 (4 copies).
(Includes ‘In praise of the New Knighthood’, tr. Conrad Greenia; selections in The Study of Chivalry (see Section 1 above). The first five chapters of the Greenia translation are also available on the WWW (see above).

W.J. Sheils, ed. The Church and War. Studies in Church History 20. Oxford: Blackwell, 1983 (2 copies). BR 140 STU.
(See especially A. K. McHardy, `The English Clergy and the Hundred Years War'.)

Forey, Alan. The Military Orders from the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries. London: Macmillan, 1992. CR 4701 FOR. 2 copies.

Housley, Norman. The Later Crusades: From Lyons to Alcazar 1274-1580. Oxford: OUP, 1992. D169 HOU (2 copies).
(Heavyweight historical survey.)

Keen, Maurice. The Laws of War in the Late Middle Ages. London and Toronto, 1965. D 128, 65-043538.
(Concentrates on the Hundred Years' War; relatively technical.)

Jones, Terry, and Alan Ereira. Crusades. London: BBC Books, 1994. D 157 JON
(Spin-off of Jones’s TV series on the Crusades. Great illustrations.)

Mayer, Hans Eberhard. The Crusades. 2nd ed. 1986. Trans. John Gillingham. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1988. D 157 MAY (multiple copies).
(Standard one-volume history.)

Millett, Bella, and Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, ed., Medieval English Prose for Women: Selections from the Katherine Group and Ancrene Wisse. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990 (rev. edn. 1992). PR 1120 MIL (10 copies).
(Includes interleaved translation of Ancrene Wisse Part 7 (allegory of the Christ-Knight).)

Munrow, David, dir., Music of the Crusades, Early Music Consort of London, Argo ZRG 673.

Pächt, Otto, C. R. Dodwell, and Francis Wormald, eds. The St. Albans Psalter. Studies of the Warburg Institute 25. London: The Warburg Institute, University of London, 1960. ND 3357.S2 (quarto shelves).

Riley-Smith, Louise and Jonathan, eds. The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095-1274. Documents of Medieval History 4. London: Edward Arnold, 1981. D 157 (5 copies). ARC
(Useful selection of extracts from primary sources, in translation, introduced by a summary history of the Crusades. The best general introduction to the Crusades.)

Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. The Oxford Illustrated history of the Crusades. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1995. D157 RIL.
(Recent collaborative history.)

Russell, F. H. The Just War in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1975. BJ 251 W2, 76-006810.

Smail, R. C. Crusading Warfare, 1079-1193. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1956; rev. ed. 1995. D 160 SMA (5 copies)
(Concentrates on the practical rather than ethical side; but lucid and informative.)

Tyerman, Christopher. England and the Crusades 1095-1588. Chicago: UCP, 1988. SL. DA 176 TYE. ARC
(Very readable and helpful.)

William Langland: The Vision of Piers Plowman: A Complete Edition of the B-Text. Ed. A. V. C. Schmidt. Everyman Classics. 2nd edn. London: Dent, 1987. PR 2010. 4 copies.
(For Christ as knight, see esp. Passus 18, 10ff. (pp. 220-1).)

4. Courtly Chivalry

Andreas Capellanus. Andreas Capellanus on Love. Ed. and trans. P. G. Walsh. Duckworth Classical, Medieval and Renaissance Editions. Duckworth (1982?). PT 1381, 79-079235. ARC.
(Twelfth-century French treatise De Amore, drawing on Ovid and the court culture of Capellanus's own time for its discussion of love in high society. Good introduction.There is also a translation by J. J. Parry, The Art of Courtly Love, 2nd edn. 1959, at PN 682).

Benson, Larry D. ‘Courtly Love and Chivalry in the Later Middle Ages.’ Fifteenth-Century Studies: Recent Essays. Ed. Robert F. Yeager. Hamden, Connecticut, 1984. 237-57. PR 293 YEA
(Playing to the gallery (it was a paper delivered to American students), but wide-ranging and quite useful.)

Boase, Roger. The Origin and Meaning of Courtly Love: a critical study of European scholarship. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1977. PN 682. ARC.
(Handy (though not esp. lucid) general survey.)

Burnley, David. Courtliness and Literature in Medieval England. London: Longman, 1998. PR 275.C6 BUR. ARC.
(A good recent general survey.)

Burnley, J. D. ‘Fine amor: its meaning and context.’ Review of English Studies 31 (1980), 129-48. Tutor box.
(Useful redefinition of terms.)

Donaldson, E. Talbot. ‘The Myth of Courtly Love’ (1965). Reprinted in his Speaking of Chaucer (London: Athlone, 1970). PR 1924 DON. ARC. Tutor box.
(Witty and incisive.)

Lewis, C. S. The Allegory of Love: A Study in Medieval Tradition (London: Oxford University Press, 1936. PN 682. (multiple copies).
Influential study which did much to disseminate the stereotype of ‘courtly love’.

5. Martial Chivalry
(see also Section 1).

Barber, Richard, and Juliet Barker. Tournaments: Jousts, Chivalry and Pageants in the Middle Ages. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1989. quarto CR 4553 BAR (2 copies). ARC
(Handsome illustrated history. Recommended for both text and pictures.)

Barker, Juliet. The Tournament in England 1100-1400. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1986. DA 176 BAR.
(Well-organized and approachable survey.)

Contamine, Philippe. War in the Middle Ages. Trans. Michael Jones. Oxford: Blackwell, 1984. [French original 1980]. U 39 CON.
(High-powered and comprehensive.)

Jones, Terry. Chaucer's Knight: The Portrait of a Medieval Mercenary. Baton Rouge, LA, 1980. PR1875. ARC
(Argues that Chaucer's portrait of the Knight is ironic, and that he is represented as a cold-blooded mercenary rather than an ideal representative of chivalry (see also Keen below).

Keen, Maurice. ‘Chaucer's Knight, the English Aristocracy and the Crusade’. English Court Culture in the Later Middle Ages. Ed. V. J. Scattergood and J. W. Sherborne. 1983. DA 185 COL. ARC
To be read in conjunction with Terry Jones's Chaucer's Knight: argues that Knight's career could have been seen as praiseworthy by C14 audience.

Lester, G. A. ‘Chaucer's Knight and the Medieval Tournament’. Neophilologus 66 (1982): 460-8. Per P.
(Argues that Terry Jones confuses jousts with tourneys in his interpretation of Knight's Tale.)

Mann, Jill. Chaucer and Medieval Estates Satire: The Literature of Social Classes and the General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1973. PR 1874 (2 copies).

Pearsall, Derek. ‘Chaucer's Poetry and its Modern Commentators: The Necessity of History’. Medieval Literature: Criticism, Ideology and History. Ed. David Aers. Brighton: Harvester, 1986. 123-47. PR 255 AER, ARC.
(Discussion of relationship of Chaucer's poetry to ‘contemporary actuality' from an anti-Marxist and anti-Robertsonian standpoint.)

Yeager, Robert F. ‘Pax Poetica: On the Pacifism of Chaucer and Gower’. Studies in the Age of Chaucer 9 (1987): 97-121. Per P.

  6. The Decline of Chivalry
(see also Section 1 above, esp. Gies, and Vale's ‘War and Chivalry’).

Anglo, Sydney, ed. Chivalry in the Renaissance. Woodbridge: Boydell, 1990. CR 4513 ANG.
(Miscellaneous articles, with very useful short introduction.)

Chapman, Graham, et al. Monty Python and the Holy Grail (Book). London: Methuen, 1977. PN 3297 CHA (2 copies). ARC
(The script of the film. For its background, see also Terry Jones’s Chaucer's Knight: The Portrait of a Medieval Mercenary (previous section) and, more generally, Roger Wilmut, From Fringe to Flying Circus, 1982 , PR 739.C6, ARC.)

Girouard, Mark. The Return to Camelot: Chivalry and the English Gentleman. New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1981. q DA 553 GIR, 85-113783 (3 copies). ARC.
(Handsomely-illustrated study of chivalric revival from C18 to First World War. Intelligent, wide-ranging, enjoyable.)

Huizinga, Johan. The Waning of the Middle Ages: A Study of Forms of Life, Thought, and Art in France and the Netherlands in the XIVth and XVth Centuries. 1919. Trans. F. Hopman, 1924. CB 353 (7 copies).
(Classic work, with much-disputed thesis (implied by title); see also Section 1.)

Williams, Gwyn A. Excalibur: The Search for Arthur.London: BBC Books, 1994. DA 152.2 WIL.
(Spin-off from TV programme: popular general survey of Arthurian legend from earliest times to the present. Well-illustrated.)

7. Individual Works (in roughly chronological order)

The Bayeux Tapestry

Bernstein, David. The Mystery of the Bayeux Tapestry. London: Weidenfeld, 1986. qNK 3049.B3 BER. ARC
(Part 1 gives a very readable and well-illustrated summary of recent scholarship on the Bayeux Tapestry; Parts 2 and 3, which argue for hidden Scriptural allusions, are to be approached with more caution.)

Brooks, N. P. and H. E. Walker. ‘The Authority and Interpretation of the Bayeux Tapestry’. Proceedings of the Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies 1, 1978. 1979. 1-24. DA 195 BAT.

Brown, H. Allen, ed. The Norman Conquest. Documents of Medieval History 5. London: Edward Arnold, 1984. DA 190 BRO. Multiple copies. ARC
(A convenient anthology of contemporary and near-contemporary sources, both Latin and Anglo-Saxon, in translation. Gives a useful insight into the uncertainties underlying modern accounts of the Conquest.)

Brown, Shirley Ann. The Bayeux Tapestry: history and bibliography. Woodbridge: Boydell, 1988. NK 3049.B3 BRO. ARC

Lewis, Suzanne. The rhetoric of power in the Bayeux tapestry. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1999. NK3049 B3 LEW.
(Applies modern critical theory to the Tapestry. )

Stenton, Frank, ed. The Bayeux Tapestry: A Comprehensive Survey. London: Phaidon. 2nd ed. 1967. qNK 3049 B3 STE. ARC
(Includes articles on various aspects of the Tapestry, b&w reproductions of Tapestry as a whole and colour plates of details, a running commentary on the action, and a trans. of the Latin inscriptions. Valuable complement to David Wilson's edition (which is more up-to-date and has better pictures, but can be eccentric at times).)

Wilson, David. The Bayeux Tapestry: The Complete Tapestry in Colour with Introduction, Description, and Commentary. London: Thames and Hudson, 1984. q NK 3049 B3 WIL (3 copies). 2 copies on ARC.
(Includes excellent full-colour reproductions of the whole tapestry, after cleaning. See also Stenton, above.)

The Song of Roland

The Song of Roland. Trans. Glyn S. Burgess. London: Penguin Books, 1990. PQ 1521.E5. 10 copies.
(Good general introduction.)

Gerard J. Brault (ed.), La Chanson de Roland: Student Edition. London: Pennsylvania State UP, 1984. PQ 1521.E5 BRA. 6 copies. ARC
(Text and interleaved translation; useful introduction. Use it as a back-up to Burgess if you are writing on Roland.)

Winner and Waster

Dyer, Christopher. Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages: Social Change in England c. 1200-1520. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989. DA 185 DYE (3 copies). ARC
(Lucid and approachable textbook, taking on larger questions of social history than its title suggests. Ch. 1, ‘Late Medieval Society’ and Ch. 4, ‘Aristocratic expenditure: making ends meet’ are particularly relevant.)

Keen, Maurice. English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 1348-1500. London: Penguin, 1990. DA 185 KEE. ARC
(Useful, readable, and up-to-date; relates the social realities of the later Middle Ages to the ‘three estates’ model of society.)

Salter, Elizabeth. ‘The timeliness of Wynnere and Wastoure’. Medium Aevum 47 (1978), 40-65. Per P.
(On the difficulties of dating the poem.)

Vale, Juliet. Edward III and Chivalry: Chivalric Society and its Context, 1270-1350. Cambridge: Brewer, 1982. CR 4513 VAL
(Short; useful on knightly background.)

Wynnere and Wastoure. Ed. S. Trigg. EETS o.s. 297. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. PR 1119. 2 copies. ARC
(See fact-sheet in course booklet for further details.)

Parliament of the Three Ages

The Parlement of the Thre Ages. Ed. M. Y. Offord. EETS o.s. 246. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1959. PR 1119 (2 copies). ARC.
(Useful introduction, ME text, and glossary; use if you are writing on the poem.)

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Anderson, William. Green Man: The Archetype of our Oneness with the Earth. London and San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1990. GR 75.G64.AND (2 copies). ARC
(Handsomely-illustrated historical quest for ‘Green Man’, taking in SGGK. Read in conjunction with Hutton (below), and with Ronald Hutton, The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy (Oxford, 1991), BL 980.G7 HUT, pp. 308-16.)

Andrew, Malcolm. The Gawain-Poet: An Annotated Bibliography 1839-1977. 1979. PR 2065.G3A5. (see also Foley, below).

Barron, W.R.J., ed. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: Text and Facing Translation. Manchester: Manchester U.P., 1974. PR 2065.G3, 74-064553. 10 copies. ARC

Basford, Kathleen. The Green Man. Ipswich: D. S. Brewer, 1978. qNA 5000
(On decorative motif of foliate head, from classical times to end of Middle Ages.)

Bennett, Michael. Community, Class, and Careerism: Cheshire and Lancashire Society in the Age of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. 1983. DA 185 BEN. ARC
(A historian's book, on the society rather than the poem. But the only halfway successful attempt at providing a historical and social context for the poem...)

Benson, Larry D. Art and Tradition in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. 1965. PR 2065. ARC
(Much useful background on the cultural traditions behind the poem, including discussion of its concept of chivalry. Sees Green Knight as  linked with Nature).

Burrow, J. A. A Reading of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965. PR 2065.G3B8. ARC
(Classic study; illuminating running commentary (but don't imitate its structure in essays).)

Chrétien de Troyes: Arthurian Romances. Trans. D. D. R. Owen. Everyman Classics. London: Dent, 1987. PQ 1447.E5 OWE. 2 copies.

Chrétien de Troyes: Arthurian Romances. Trans. William W. Kibler and Carleton W. Carroll. Penguin Classics. London: Penguin Books, 1991. PQ 1447.E5 KIB. 2 copies.

Clein, Wendy. Concepts of Chivalry in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Norman, Oklahoma, 1987. PR 2065.G3C4

Foley, Michael. ‘The Gawain-Poet: An Annotated Bibliography’, Chaucer Review 23 (1989), 251-82. Per P.
(Update of Andrew (above). See also Stainsby (below).)

Harrison, Keith (tr.) and Helen Cooper (introd.). Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford U.P, 1998.
(Verse translation with introduction, notes, and short bibliography.)

Hutton, Ronald. The Stations of the Sun. Oxford: Oxford Paperbacks, 1997. GT 4843 HUT (1 wk loan).
(Masterly (and profoundly sceptical) survey of the history and continuing development of English seasonal rituals.)

Millett, Bella. ‘How Green is the Green Knight?’ Nottingham Medieval Studies 38 (1994): 138--51. Per C-F. Tutor box.
(On the relationship between the Green Knight and the ‘Green Man’.)

Putter, Ad. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and French Arthurian romance. Oxford New York : Clarendon Press, 1995. PR 2065.G3P7. ARC

Putter, Ad. The Gawain-Poet. Addison Wesley Longman Higher Education, 1996. (received; not yet classified).
(General introduction to the Gawain-Poet.)

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Ed. J. R. R. Tolkien and E. V. Gordon. 2nd ed., rev. Norman Davis. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1967. PR 2065 G3. ARC
(Excellent Glossary.)

Spearing, A. C. The Gawain-Poet: A Critical Study. 1970. PR 2065. 4 copies. ARC
(The best general book on the Gawain-Poet.)

Stainsby, Meg. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: an annotated bibliography, 1978-1989. New York: Garland, 1992. PR 2065.G3S7

Whiting, B. J. ‘Gawain: His reputation, his courtesy and his appearance in Chaucer’s Squire’s Tale’. Medieval Studies 9 (1947), 189-234. Tutor box.
(Wide-ranging article on Gawain’s medieval reputation and characterization.)

Chaucer’s General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales

Benson, L. D. (ed.) The Riverside Chaucer. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1988. PR 1850 (multiple copies).

See also section 5 above for further reading.

Malory's ‘Morte Darthur’

Benson, Larry D, ed. King Arthur's Death: the Middle English Stanzaic Morte Arthur and Alliterative Morte Arthur. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1974. PR 2064.
(Two Middle English sources of the Morte D'Arthur.)

Benson, Larry D. Malory's Morte Arthur. Cambridge, Mass. 1976. PR 2045. ARC

Boorman, John, dir. Excalibur, GB,1981 (135 min.) PN 3299 EXC. 2 copies in Avenue Library.
(Film adaptation of Malory's Morte Darthur, with a distinctively 'green' spin.)

Boorman, John, dir. The Director's Place, BBC2, 15 October 1994 (50 min.). WSA, VIDEO 791.43 BOO. (I also have copy).
(Documentary on Boorman himself, esp. his relationship with the Irish landscape used in filming Excalibur.)

Cooper, Helen, ed. Sir Thomas Malory: Le Morte Darthur, the Winchester manuscript. World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998. (on order).
(Abridged modern-spelling edition of the older surviving version of the Morte Darthur. Excellent general introduction.)

The Death of King Arthur. Trans. James Cable. London: Penguin Classics, 1971. PQ 1496.M75
(Translation (by computer specialist, and reads like it) of early C13 French prose work which was major source of Malory's account of Arthur's death.)

Essays on Malory. Ed. J. A. W. Bennett. 1963. PR 2045. ARC
(Includes C. S. Lewis, ‘The English Prose Morte’.)

Kennedy, B. Knighthood in the Morte Darthur. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1985. PR 2045 KEN.

Lambert, Mark. Style and Vision in Le Morte Darthur. New Haven, Conn., 1975. PR 2045.

McCarthy, Terence. Reading the Morte Darthur. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1988. PR 2045.

The Quest of the Holy Grail. Trans. Pauline M. Matarasso. London: Penguin Classics, 1969. PQ 1475, 74-054947. SL. 5 copies.
(Translation of the early C13 French prose source of Malory's Queste; a work of considerable charm and interest in its own right.)

Riddy, Felicity. Sir Thomas Malory. Medieval and Renaissance Authors. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987. PR 2045 RID. ARC.

Takamiya, T., and D. S. Brewer, eds. Aspects of Malory. 1981. PR 2045. ARC.

Vinaver, Eugene, ed. The Complete Works of Sir Thomas Malory. Ed. Eugène Vinaver. 3 vols. 3rd ed., rev. by P. J. C. Field. Oxford English Texts. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990. PR 2041. ARC
(The standard edition, based, like the Cooper edition, on the Winchester MS of Malory's works. Not particularly user-friendly, especially if you’re not fluent in Old French, but the Introduction and Notes (which include mini-introductions to each Book) are still worth consulting if you are writing on Malory.)
Text-only version of the 2nd edition published by Oxford Paperbacks: Malory: Works.

The best way of finding quality-controlled WWW resources is by going through one of the major medievalists' websites; two of the best are ORB, the On-Line Reference Book for Medievalists, at http://orb.rhodes.edu/, which also gives references to other gateway sites on its homepage, and THE LABYRINTH, at http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth. Searching for books in other libraries, or checking references, can usefully be done through the Cambridge University Library website at http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/ (go to 'Catalogues' from the homepage). Web resources for individual texts or topics will be added under the individual sections above.