Endogenisation

The earliest synthesis of DNA some 4 billion years ago marks one of the first in a series of major evolutionary transitions from simple to more complex structures1. Subsequent major transitions include the evolution of multicellularity and cell differentiation, of eukaryotes with cells containing membrane-bound organelles, of sexual reproduction, and of coloniality with non-reproductive castes. At each of these largely irreversible steps, modes of storing and transmitting resource shifted from exogenous sharing out to endogenous distribution within the organism. Single cells evolved mutual dependencies and specific functions within a multicellular individual; autonomous individuals became mutually dependent and function-specific within a structured population. Transitions in cell and individual morphologies will have established and spread for any such endogenisation that enhanced the transmission of its genetically coded information from one generation to the next.

Each major transition since the advent of DNA has colossally expanded the variety of lifeforms. And yet, it is the microbes that remain by far the most diverse group, and the procaryotic cyanobacteria the most abundant of all organisms ever to have existed on Earth2. Microbes will thrive regardless of the fate of more complex lifeforms, but all forms of life would collapse without the microbes3.

Throughout human history, cultural innovations have accumulated whenever new divisions of labour bring synergistic rewards that outweigh the returns for competing alone. Synergistic collaboration is exemplified by two people, each with one oar, propelling a boat, whist one person with one oar rows in circles4. The advancement has required transitioning from an exogenous sharing out of oars to their endogenous distribution within the boat. As for the rowers, so also for the allocation of roles amongst a ship’s crew, and so on for the diverse professions within a city, and the class structure of a nation.

For all that cumulative culture has built massively complex societies, its collaborative enterprises remain perpetually challenged by defectors from cooperation, who reap all of its benefits without helping to sustain it. Defectors see fit to disregard societal mores and taboos the better to enrich themselves at the expense of the rest of us. We good citizens, with our injunctive norms for how people ought to behave5, are in fact suckers for such base enrichment by others6. We may hold the moral high ground, but not much else, and certainly not most of the wealth7. That goes to my boating partner, who’s now encouraging me to row with both oars while he eats our lunch. What should I do? He doesn’t need me, although he’s the richer for my efforts; and actually I depend on him, hungry as I am, because he’s my employer. I endogenise the hurt, and row on happy with my lot. It’s a glorious morning, my boss is wearing one of his socks inside out, and I’m curious to know how he organises his day.

• Maynard Smith, J. & Szathmáry, E. (1995) The Major Transitions in Evolution.
• The earliest photosynthetic bacteria appeared at least 3.5 billion years ago, precursors to the prokaryotic cyanobacteria first appearing about 1 billion years later.
• Microbes drive planetary biogeochemical cycling of the elements hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur, essential to all life on Earth.
• Szathmáry, E. & Maynard Smith, J. (1995) The major evolutionary transitions. Nature.
• Partington, S., Kamtekar, R. & Nichols, S. (2025) Norms emerge through iterated learning. PNAS.
• The challenge of sustaining cooperation is usefully illustrated by a strategy game called the Prisoner’s Dilemma. Two partners in crime, each in solitary confinement have to decide independently whether to cooperate with each other for mutual benefit or to betray their partner for personal gain. The individual payoff for mutual cooperation (the ‘reward’ for staying silent, of a lenient sentence for want of evidence) is higher than for mutual defection from cooperation (the ‘penalty’ of a just sentence following dual testimony). But the best payoff comes to the defector who betrays a silent cooperator (the ‘temptation’ of impunity), and the worst goes to that cooperator (the ‘sucker’ punch of taking all the guilt). In 2012, suspected murderers Jodie and Kelly Barnes were separately presented with these options by the Norfolk Constabulary, in the knowledge that fear of being betrayed left unilateral betrayal as the only rational choice for guilty parties. Both received life sentences after each laying all of the blame on the other. The group benefit of mutual cooperation tends to emerge only in repeated iterations of the game by the same two players.
• In 2023, an elite 10% of the world’s population shared three-quarters of all personal net wealth; half the world’s population shared just 2% of this global wealth.

C.P. Doncaster, Timeline of the Human Condition, star index