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Wars have been fought throughout the history of mankind. Ethical concerns that they raised, or, in other words, the rights and wrongs of waging war, have been discussed from time immemorial. War has often been seen as an evil, a necessary evil, to be avoided when possible. On the other hand, there have always been circumstances in which the resort to war and violence was accepted or justified, and even, in particular instances, praised or celebrated. The ‘if’ and ‘why’ a war can be fought are at the heart of the ethics of war and the so-called ‘just war theory’. However, the legitimacy of a war is not the only concern, not at least, according to modern International Humanitarian Laws (IHL), according to which a just war has to be fought in a just way. The IHL rules over the conduct of war, defining the rights and status of both combatants and non-combatants alike.

Historians often see a fundamental rupture between pre- and post- Geneva Conventions, rebuffing the legacy of the past. Yet the past may help to understand why the Conventions are not always successfully upheld in the modern world. This module will take a wide historical perspective on the ethics of war, looking at ancient, medieval and modern interpretation of why and how wars should be fought. By no means, however, will our reflection remain purely theoretical. In order to understand the context and evolution of the establishment of the norms or rules of war (and the societies that make them), it is fundamentally necessary to observe their historical applications: why and how wars were fought is at least as important as why and how wars should be fought.

Wars have been fought throughout the history of mankind. Ethical concerns that they raised, or, in other words, the rights and wrongs of waging war, have been discussed from time immemorial. War has often been seen as an evil, a necessary evil, to be avoided when possible. On the other hand, there have always been circumstances in which the resort to war and violence was accepted or justified, and even, in particular instances, praised or celebrated. The ‘if’ and ‘why’ a war can be fought are at the heart of the ethics of war and the so-called ‘just war theory’. However, the legitimacy of a war is not the only concern, not at least, according to modern International Humanitarian Laws (IHL), according to which a just war has to be fought in a just way. The IHL rules over the conduct of war, defining the rights and status of both combatants and non-combatants alike.

Historians often see a fundamental rupture between pre- and post- Geneva Conventions, rebuffing the legacy of the past. Yet the past may help to understand why the Conventions are not always successfully upheld in the modern world. This module will take a wide historical perspective on the ethics of war, looking at ancient, medieval and modern interpretation of why and how wars should be fought. By no means, however, will our reflection remain purely theoretical. In order to understand the context and evolution of the establishment of the norms or rules of war (and the societies that make them), it is fundamentally necessary to observe their historical applications: why and how wars were fought is at least as important as why and how wars should be fought.

Science has become an indispensable component of our modern world and scientists are often held in a place of unquestioned privilege. From electrical power to space travel, to artificial intelligence, scientific developments have radically altered the ways in which we interact with each other, and understand our world and very own human nature. Yet science is fundamentally a cultural activity which is embedded within a wider social context. In recent years the often unquestioned privilege of science has been questioned more and more on both national and international scales as deep-rooted issues of gender inequality, racism colonialism, and so on, have emerged leading to increased distrust in the authority of science.

Given this situation what can we learn about the present state from the past? Shifting away from older intellectual scholarly approaches which only focused on the ‘great discoveries’, in this module we take a much broader historical and critical approach placing science it into its proper social and global context. In doing so, this module asks the question - how were scientific developments of the past shaped and/or influenced by religion, culture, politics, gender and empire? This module will use case studies to highlight overarching themes that address the challenges, complexities and inequalities which have emerged within the history of science.

Science has become an indispensable component of our modern world and scientists are often held in a place of unquestioned privilege. From electrical power to space travel, to artificial intelligence, scientific developments have radically altered the ways in which we interact with each other, and understand our world and very own human nature. Yet science is fundamentally a cultural activity which is embedded within a wider social context. In recent years the often unquestioned privilege of science has been questioned more and more on both national and international scales as deep-rooted issues of gender inequality, racism colonialism, and so on, have emerged leading to increased distrust in the authority of science.

Given this situation what can we learn about the present state from the past? Shifting away from older intellectual scholarly approaches which only focused on the ‘great discoveries’, in this module we take a much broader historical and critical approach placing science it into its proper social and global context. In doing so, this module asks the question - how were scientific developments of the past shaped and/or influenced by religion, culture, politics, gender and empire? This module will use case studies to highlight overarching themes that address the challenges, complexities and inequalities which have emerged within the history of science.

Science has become an indispensable component of our modern world and scientists are often held in a place of unquestioned privilege. From electrical power to space travel, to artificial intelligence, scientific developments have radically altered the ways in which we interact with each other, and understand our world and very own human nature. Yet science is fundamentally a cultural activity which is embedded within a wider social context. In recent years the often unquestioned privilege of science has been questioned more and more on both national and international scales as deep-rooted issues of gender inequality, racism colonialism, and so on, have emerged leading to increased distrust in the authority of science.

Given this situation what can we learn about the present state from the past? Shifting away from older intellectual scholarly approaches which only focused on the ‘great discoveries’, in this module we take a much broader historical and critical approach placing science it into its proper social and global context. In doing so, this module asks the question - how were scientific developments of the past shaped and/or influenced by religion, culture, politics, gender and empire? This module will use case studies to highlight overarching themes that address the challenges, complexities and inequalities which have emerged within the history of science.

The resurgence of the far right is one of the most striking and challenging features of the 21st century political landscape. Attitudes and practices that were marginal and unrespectable just decades ago have gained considerable traction, whether measured through election results or the shifts in public discourse around notions of race and nation. On this module you will learn to identify the distinctive features of far right thinking and practice by studying its manifestations in Europe and the wider world. Although the most notorious expression of the far right - fascism - is inescapably European in origin, these and other forms of authoritarian populism are much more widespread. You are asked to think about where far right ideas come from while also bearing in mind their variety, and the fluidity and contingency of their development since the late nineteenth century.

The resurgence of the far right is one of the most striking and challenging features of the 21st century political landscape. Attitudes and practices that were marginal and unrespectable just decades ago have gained considerable traction, whether measured through election results or the shifts in public discourse around notions of race and nation. On this module you will learn to identify the distinctive features of far right thinking and practice by studying its manifestations in Europe and the wider world. Although the most notorious expression of the far right - fascism - is inescapably European in origin, these and other forms of authoritarian populism are much more widespread. You are asked to think about where far right ideas come from while also bearing in mind their variety, and the fluidity and contingency of their development since the late nineteenth century.

The resurgence of the far right is one of the most striking and challenging features of the 21st century political landscape. Attitudes and practices that were marginal and unrespectable just decades ago have gained considerable traction, whether measured through election results or the shifts in public discourse around notions of race and nation. On this module you will learn to identify the distinctive features of far right thinking and practice by studying its manifestations in Europe and the wider world. Although the most notorious expression of the far right - fascism - is inescapably European in origin, these and other forms of authoritarian populism are much more widespread. You are asked to think about where far right ideas come from while also bearing in mind their variety, and the fluidity and contingency of their development since the late nineteenth century.

Is sex a biologically-conditioned experience that remains constant over place and time, or is sex and sexuality an ever-changing lived reality that reflects (and shapes) broader shifts within society and culture? This overarching question, fiercely debated by historians since the 1970s, is at the heart of this module which examines the turbulent history of same-sex relations of women and men. The module takes the moment of the 'invention' of homosexuality (and heterosexuality) in the late nineteenth century and considers the historical context of this moment and the significance of its impact on gay men and women through to the present. You will survey case-studies ranging from the Ancient World through to the contemporary, drawing together Biblical and artistic sources, criminal records, diaries, and published reports amongst others to compare understandings of same-sex relations in different eras and cultural contexts. This is a chronologically and culturally wide-ranging module, which challenges you to make critical judgements about the value of constructions such as ‘homosexuality' and ‘homophobia', and their place in historical discourse. Since the 1960s, the status of gay people and same-sex sexual relationships has proved one of the most controversial social issues in western society; this module takes a long view of the subject, evaluating along the way the significance of sex as marking the place of individuals within societies.

Is sex a biologically-conditioned experience that remains constant over place and time, or is sex and sexuality an ever-changing lived reality that reflects (and shapes) broader shifts within society and culture? This overarching question, fiercely debated by historians since the 1970s, is at the heart of this module which examines the turbulent history of same-sex relations of women and men. The module takes the moment of the 'invention' of homosexuality (and heterosexuality) in the late nineteenth century and considers the historical context of this moment and the significance of its impact on gay men and women through to the present. You will survey case-studies ranging from the Ancient World through to the contemporary, drawing together Biblical and artistic sources, criminal records, diaries, and published reports amongst others to compare understandings of same-sex relations in different eras and cultural contexts. This is a chronologically and culturally wide-ranging module, which challenges you to make critical judgements about the value of constructions such as ‘homosexuality' and ‘homophobia', and their place in historical discourse. Since the 1960s, the status of gay people and same-sex sexual relationships has proved one of the most controversial social issues in western society; this module takes a long view of the subject, evaluating along the way the significance of sex as marking the place of individuals within societies.